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The loess-paleosol sequences on the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP) preserve abundant information of the paleoenvironment in the Asian interior and of the evolution of the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) (An et al., 2001; Ding et al., 2002; Maher, 2016; Li et al., 2018).
The Holocene is the latest phase of global climate evolution, and Holocene paleoclimate history has been reconstructed by various archives including stalagmites (Wang et al., 2005; Verheyden et al., 2008; Kato et al., 2021), lake sediments (Dixit et al. 2014; Hamdan et al., 2020; Emmanouilidis et al., 2022), and eolian sediments (Senra et al., 2019; Li et al., 2022), with emphasis on the spatial and temporal variability of the EASM. The spatial variations of chemical weathering and paleo-weathering in loess-paleosol sequences over the CLP from southeast to northwest are consistent with the modern rainfall gradient (Hao and Guo, 2005). However, the evolution of the EASM during the Holocene on the CLP remains controversial. The Holocene loess-paleosol sequences in the central of CLP show a distinct two-stage pattern of EASM, with a gradual increase during 13.1–8.5 kyr B. P. and a gradual decrease thereafter (Li et al., 2022). The EASM was strong and sandstorm activity was weak during 8500–6000 and 5000–3100 yr B.P. in the southern CLP (Zhao et al., 2020). While the middle Holocene is regarded as being warmer than the early and late Holocene (Wang et al., 2014; Senra et al., 2019), the Holocene megathermal episode was between 8.5–3.0 kyr B. P. (Shi et al., 1994). The optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating records in the Horqin desert in northern China suggest that the Holocene climatic optimum was from ~9 to 5 kyr B. P. (Guo et al., 2018a).
The EASM is characterized by alternating cold-dry and warm-wet climate cycles during the Holocene (An et al., 2015; Maher, 2016). The sediment grain-size and magnetic susceptibility (χ) are useful proxies for reconstructing the evolution of the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) (Ding et al., 2002; Stuut, 2007; Zhang et al., 2016) and the EASM (An et al., 2001; Orgeira et al., 2011; Maher, 2016; Zan et al., 2018; Jordanova and Jordanova, 2021). Previous studies of grain-size fractions demonstrated that > 30 μm grain-size fraction was sensitive to the EAWM in the central CLP, the > 40 μm grain-size fraction was a valid proxy in recording the EAWM in the western CLP (Wang et al., 2002), the median size was more sensitive to Holocene climate changes than susceptibility in the northern CLP (Zhao et al., 2013), < 2 μm fraction was a more accurate and sensitive indicator of weathering and soil formation in the western CLP (Guo et al., 2019), whereas the < 5 µm grain-size fraction was a robust indicator of pedogenic intensity and EASM under semiarid climatic conditions (Guo et al., 2011; Maher, 2016). Similarly, χ shows a positive correlation with pedogenic intensity in the central CLP and central Europe (Liu et al., 2001; Balsam et al., 2004; Jordanova and Jordanova, 2021). While it decreases with increased pedogenic intensity at the southern edge of the CLP (Han et al., 1996; Guo et al., 2018b). χ was mainly controlled by precipitation in soils (Guo et al., 2011). The χ and grain size parameters indicating the evolution of the East Asian monsoon are different in different regions of the CLP.
Although large numbers of researches had been conducted to study the variations of magnetic and grain-size parameters as the changes of temperature and/or precipitation, the patterns of various paleosols in different regions of the CLP has not yet been completely understood. Comparisons of the records among different climatic terms in the CLP with those distances of hundreds of kilometers obviously are beneficial to improve our understanding about this issue. This paper presents systematical magnetic susceptibility and grain size measurements of three Holocene paleosols from the sections of BCY in the northwestern CLP, XF in the central CLP and LY in the southern CLP to investigate changes of Holocene climate in different regions of the CLP. We analyzed grain size distributions and magnetic susceptibility characteristics for reliable proxies for the EAWM and EASM respectively, to explore the histories of Holocene climate at different climate setting.
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The locations of the BCY, XF and LY sections are shown in Fig. 1. The BCY section (36°14′N, 105°08′E) is located at the northwest margin of the CLP, with a sub-frigid climate characterized by higher temperature and low precipitation in summer and dry-cold in winter. The annual mean temperature (MAT) is 6.5 °C, and the mean annual precipitation (MAP) is 366 mm (Zhao et al., 2013). The XF section (35°46′N, 107°41′E) is located in the central CLP and at the east of Liupan Mountains, with semi-arid climate by high temperature and precipitation in summer and dry-cold in winter. The MAT is 8.7 °C and the MAP is 550 mm (Guo et al., 2018b). The LY section (34°45′N, 107°49′E) is located in the southern CLP, northwest of Guanzhong Basin. The climate is semi-humid, with MAT of 9.1 °C and MAP of 680 mm (Guo et al., 2018b). The precipitations exhibit markedly decreasing trend from the southeast of the CLP to the northwest, which provide a good natural field for investigating the variations of relevant proxies.
Figure 1. The location of Chinese Loess Plateau with the wind directions of Indian monsoon and East Asian monsoons (Xue et al., 2016) (a), and the sites of Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) sections (b)
Samples were taken at 2-cm interval for the BCY section and 5-cm interval for the XF and LY sections. Ninety four samples for BCY, 29 samples for XF and 15 samples for LY profiles were obtained.
The magnetic susceptibility (χ) is typically used as a proxy of EASM intensity in the central of CLP and it reflects pedogenic intensity (Hao and Guo, 2005). The sample were air-dried at room temperature, weighed and packed in a nonmagnetic cubic plastic boxes of 8 ml volume. χ (mass-specific) was measured using Bartington Instruments MS-2 magnetic susceptibility meter (low frequency χlf with 470 Hz, high frequency χhf with 4700 Hz). The frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility was calculated as follows: χfd = (χlf − χhf)/χlf.
Grain size measurements have been widely applied to Chinese loess deposits for reconstructing variations in the intensity of the EAWM (Zhang et al., 2016). Grain-size distributions were measured using a British Malvern Mastersizer 2000 laser particle size analyzer with a measurement range of 0.02–2000 μm, with a 0.1Φ resolution and an absolute error of < 5% (Guo et al., 2019). All the measurements were completed in the Key Laboratory of West China’s Environmental Systems, Ministry of Education, Lanzhou University.
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The thickness of the Holocene paleosols of BCY, XF and LY sections are 1.88 m, 1.40 m and 0.70 m, respectively. Based on the research of BCY section (Zhao et al., 2013), comparing χ and grain size analyzed results of XF and LY sections with BCY section, we concluded that the Holocene in the BCY, XF and LY sections could be divided into three layers. The variations of grain size, χ and χfd curves of Holocene paleosols in BYC, XF and LY sections are shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Vertical distribution curves of grain size and magnetic susceptibility of Holocene paleosols in Baicaoyuan (a), Xifeng (b) and Linyou (c) sections. Md, median grain size; GT30/63, 30–63 µm grain-size fraction; GT2/5, 2–5 µm grain-size fraction; χ, magnetic susceptibility; χfd, frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility
In BCY section (Fig. 2a), the values of Md (median grain size) and GT30/63 (30–63 µm grain-size fraction) are lower at depths of 1.88–1.76 m, where χ, χfd and GT2/5 (2–5 µm grain-size fraction) increase to the higher, which reflect a weaker EAWM and an increasing pedogenesis with enhanced EASM (Sun et al., 2004; Hao and Guo, 2005). The values of Md and GT30/63 are the lowest, and χ, χfd and GT2/5 arrive at the highest for depths of 1.76–0.60 m, indicating the weaker EAWM and the stronger pedogenesis degree. The values of χ, χfd and GT2/5 decline from 0.60–0 m, while the Md and GT30/63 increase, suggesting that the EAWM intensified and pedogenesis weakened. The χfd value is 6.6%–9.0%, means that superparamagnetic and coarse magnetic particles coexisting in samples (Dearing, 1999). These parameters show that the regional climate in the BCY changed from warm-state to more cold-state during the Holocene.
In XF section (Fig. 2b), the values of Md and GT30/63 are the lowest at depths of 1.40–1.20 m, while the χ, χfd and GT2/5 are the highest, which reflect the weak EAWM, and strong pedogenesis and EASM. From 1.20–0.92 m, the values of χ and χfd decrease, GT2/5 reduced rapidly to the lowest, while the Md and GT30/63 increased rapidly to the highest values, indicating that the EAWM intensified and the climate became dry and cold. From 0.92–0.35 m, the values of Md and GT30/63 are lower, but increase slightly, and χ, χfd and GT2/5 are relatively higher, indicating a weaker EAWM with relatively warm-wet climate. From 0.35–0 m, the values of χ, χfd are the lowest, Md and GT30/63 are higher, indicating dry and cold climate. Overall, the decreasing trends of χ and χfd and increasing trends of Md and GT30/63 in XF section suggest that pedogenesis and EASM weakened, EAWM intensified. The climate became drier and colder during the Holocene.
In LY section (Fig. 2c), the values of Md and GT30/63 are low, χ and GT2/5 are high, χfd value is the highest at depth of 0.70–0.60 m, which may indicate strong EASM and weak EAWM, climate was warm-humid. Md and GT30/63 values have great fluctuation from 0.60–0.20 m, the values of χ, χfd and GT2/5 are the highest, indicating the strong pedogenesis and EASM. From 0.20–0 m, GT30/63 value rise steadily to the highest, the χ and χfd values are the lowest, indicating strong EAWM and weak pedogenesis, and the climate was dry and cold. Overall, the decreasing trends of χ, χfd in LY section indicate that the climate was colder and drier during the late Holocene.
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The grain size frequency distribution curves of paleosols from BCY, XF and LY sections are showed in Fig. 3. The frequency distribution curves of BCY section have an obvious main peak at 5.0 Φ and a sub-peak at 7.0 Φ (Fig. 3a), but the main peak are obvious at 5.5 Φ (Fig. 3b) and 6Φ (Fig. 3c), sub-peak at ~8.0 Φ are not obvious in XF and LY sections. The main peak values of BCY, XF and LY sections are 5 Φ, 5.5 Φ and 6.0 Φ, respectively, the mass percentage are 29%, 35% and 45%, respectively (Fig. 3), which show that the fine grains fraction increase from northwest to southeast in the CLP (Zhu, 2020). Similarly, skewness can reflect the size and sorting of grain size (Jiang, 2009). The skewness are 0.02, 0.27 and 0.29 from BCY, XF to LY, the increasing positive skewness reflects long tails of fine grain size. The main peak and skewness show that EAWM became weak from northwest to southeast in CLP during the Holocene.
Figure 3. Grain-size frequency distribution curves of paleosol samples from Baicaoyuan (a), Xifeng(b) and Linyou(c) sections on Chinese Loess Plateau
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Oxygen isotope records from stalagmites have the precision and resolution superior to loess-paleosol records, and the χ curves of three sections show similar trends with δ18O variation in a stalagmite from Sanbao Cave (SB) (Fig. 4) (Wang et al., 2008). Comparing χ with the dated δ18O of stalagmite from Sanbao Cave, we concluded the age of three phases in the Holocene (Fig. 4): 1) Early Holocene, the age of the lower boundary of early Holocene in three sections is ~11.8 kyr B. P., which is similar to the base of Holocene (11.7 kyr B. P.) defined by International Chronostratigraphic Chart (International Commission on Stratigraphy, 2018); 2) Middle Holocene, the age of the lower boundary of middle Holocene is ~10.5 kyr B. P.; (III) Late Holocene, the age of the lower boundary of late Holocene is ~5.0 kyr B. P.. The stalagmites from Xiniu Cave also recorded the middle Holocene about 10–5 kyr B. P. (Deng, 2017).
Figure 4. A comparison diagram among magnetic susceptibility (χ) of Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) paleosols on Chinese Loess Plateau and δ18O of stalagmites from Sanbao Cave (SB) (Wang et al., 2008)
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The evolution of Holocene climate in BCY, XF and LY regions are as follows: During the early Holocene (11.8–10.5 kyr B. P.), Md and GT30/63 in three sections declined, but χ and χfd values increased to a maximum (Fig. 2), reflecting a warmer climate after Younger Dryas event (Wang et al., 2008). During the middle Holocene (10.5–5.0 kyr B. P.), the Md and GT30/63 were low, but χ and χfd values were highest (Fig. 2), as evidence of an enhanced EASM and strong pedogenesis degree, this was the warmest and wettest period during the Holocene. During the late Holocene (5.0–0 kyr B. P.), χ and χfd values were the lowest, but Md and GT30/63 were high in three sections, which suggest that the EASM and pedogenesis weakened, the regional climate became dry and cold. The strengthening trend of EAWM during the late Holocene was caused by changes in middle- to high-latitude Northern Hemisphere atmospheric temperatures (Kang et al., 2020). Overall, the trends of Holocene climate evolution on CLP was consistent with the Holocene environmental changes in the Horqin desert in the northeastern China, which were controlled by movements of the EASM rainfall belt on a millennial time scale (Guo et al., 2018a).
Comparing the χ of BCY, XF and LY sections with the abundance of Punctumorphana in XF section and July solar insolation at latitude 65°N (Berger and Loutre, 1991), the variation trends are consistent (Fig. 5). The local climate change was related to July solar insolation: when the summer insolation gradient between middle and low latitudes increased, causing increased heat and vapor transportation from low latitude oceans to middle latitude continents, thus the EASM was intensified (Chen and Wu, 2008), the χ values and abundance of Punctumorphana increased during the early Holocene (Fig. 5), the climate was warmer and wetter. During the middle Holocene, the χ values were high and Punctumorphana thrived in this period, when the climate was the warmest and wettest (Chen and Wu, 2008). During the late Holocene, the χ values and abundance of Punctumorphana decreased with the declining July solar insolation gradient and cold and dry climate.
Figure 5. The correlation between χ of Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) sections on Chinese Loess Plateau and the abundance of Punctumorphana in Xifeng section (Chen and Wu, 2008) and July Solar Insolation at 65°N (Berger and Loutre, 1991)
In conclusion, the climate of CLP rapidly warmed during the early Holocene (11.8–10.5 kyr B. P.), during the middle Holocene (10.5–5.0 kyr B. P.), it was the warmest and wettest period, but during the late Holocene (5.0–0 kyr B. P.), EAWM was intensified and the regional climate became dry and cold.
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The increased skewness and main peak values from BCY, XF to LY (Fig. 3) show that EAWM became weak and climate was warming from northwest to southeast in CLP during the Holocene. The grain size frequency distribution curves in BCY section has an obvious sub-peak at 7Φ, but the sub-peak at ~8Φ are not obvious in the XF and LY sections (Fig. 3). As the climate was warm, atmosphere pressure gradient decreased and EAWM was weak, and BCY belonged to monsoon area. EASM was resisted by the Liupan Mountains and winds could only carry fine grain size fractions (7Φ). When the climate was cold, it belonged to non-monsoon area and the strong EAWM carried coarse grains from northern deserts (Zhao et al., 2013). In contrast, XF and LY sections are located within the monsoonal area. The grain kurtosis and skewness indicate that the grain sizes of BCY are finer than the sizes of XF and LY during the middle Holocene megathermal, which is consistent with the results of Md, GT30/63 and GT2/5 (Fig. 2).
The maximum values of χ and χfd increase from BCY (12.16 × 10−7m3/kg, 8.88%) to XF (12.86 ×10−7m3/kg, 9.61%), then decrease in LY (12.68 ×10−7m3/kg, 8.73%) (Fig. 2). Modern mean annual precipitation increases from 366 mm, to 550 mm, and to 680 mm from BCY, XF to LY (Fig. 1), the EASM intensify. The BCY and XF sections are in the northwest edge and central CLP with well drained under semi-arid climate conditions, so there is a generally positive correlation between magnetic enhancement and pedogenesis (Ding et al., 1999; Balsam et al., 2004; Orgeira et al., 2011). However, LY has semi-humid climate, the moisture of the paleosol is higher and exceeds an upper threshold leading to transformation of the parts of fine ferrimagnetic minerals into weakly magnetic minerals, thus lowering magnetic susceptibility (Song et al., 2014; Guo et al., 2018b).
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XF section is located in the central CLP, east of Liupan Mountains, and showed rapidly decreased χ and χfd values at ~8.0 kyr B. P. (Fig. 4), as well as lower abundance of Punctumorphana snails (Fig. 2, 5), indicating cold and dry transient climatic events. The GT2/5, Md and GT30/63 curves of XF section also recorded the cold events at ~8.0 kyr B. P. (Fig. 2). Cold-dry climate at ~8.0 kyr B. P. corresponds to Heinrich event 5 in the North Atlantic Ocean (Bond et al., 1997). This event is also documented in lacustrine sediment (Dean et al., 2002; Dixit et al., 2014), stalagmites (Wang, 2008), and ice cores (Vinther et al., 2006; Thomas et al., 2007). There are two possible explanations for the weakening of the EASM at about 8.0 kyr B. P.. One explanation focuses on the collapse of the Laurentide ice sheet, which resulted in fresh water input and reduced thermohaline circulation in the North Atlantic Ocean. Diminished thermohaline circulation allows warm surface water to accumulate in the tropics and southern hemisphere, and this alters the heat balance between northern and southern hemisphere, resulting in a southward migration of the intertropical convergence zone as well as a weakening of the EASM (Wang et al., 2005; Fleitmann et al., 2008). Another explanation is that the Icelandic low pressure cell moved northeast due to the catastrophic melt-water event in the North Atlantic (Dean et al., 2002; Thomas et al., 2007).
Weakening of EASM indicated by grain size and susceptibility since 5.0 kyr B. P. may be due to diminished thermal and pressure contrast between the continent and ocean as decrease of solar insolation (Fig. 5, Liu et al., 2009; Yan et al., 2015; Lan et al., 2020). Decreased monsoon moisture transport results in less precipitation in area controlled by the EASM. Records from peat (Zhang et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2017), lacustrine sediment (Shen et al., 2005), stalagmites (Wang et al., 2008), desert sediment (Guo et al., 2018a), and the GRIP and NGRIP ice cores (Vinther et al., 2006) from northern hemisphere also reveal that the EASM weakened starting around 5.0 kyr B. P..
The mechanisms of the ~8.0 kyr B. P. and since 5.0 kyr B. P. cold events were different, the ~8.0 kyr B. P. cold event was likely due to the collapse of the Laurentide ice sheet, however, the decrease of irradiance since 5.0 kyr B. P. may has caused climatic cooling and drying since then.
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The study show that Md has positive correlation with the intensity of EAWM in BCY, XF and LY sections, and it can be used as alternative proxy for the EAWM, while χfd has positive correlation with the intensity of EASM under semiarid climatic conditions in CLP.
The increased skewness and main peak values from BCY, XF to LY show that EAWM weaken and climate warming from northwest to southeast in CLP during the Holocene.
The χfd and χ values increased and coarse grain size fraction (Md) contents decreased from 11.8–10.5 kyr B. P., which indicate climate change from cold to warm after the Younger Dryas. During 10.5–5.0 kyr B. P., the higher values of χfd and χ reflect a warm-humid regional climate. At ~8.0 kyr B. P., a transient dry-cold climate corresponds to the North Atlantic Heinrich event 5. Since 5.0 kyr B. P., the χ values decreased and coarse grain fraction contents increased, which indicates the regional climate became dry and cold.
In summary, the climate was dry-cold at the beginning of the Holocene, then warm-wet during the middle Holocene, and it became drier and colder with the weakening EASM during the late Holocene.
Spatial-temporal Characteristics of Holocene Paleosols in the Chinese Loess Plateau and Paleoclimatic Significance
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Abstract: The evolution of Holocene climate was investigated using grain size and magnetic susceptibility of the Holocene paleosols from Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) sections in the northwest, central and southern Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP). The results show that the Holocene in the BCY, XF and LY paleosol sections could be divided into three phases: during the early Holocene (11.8–10.5 kyr B. P.), increased magnetic susceptibility (χ) and frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility (χfd) and decreased median grain size (Md) indicate that the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) has become more intense and the climate has changed from cold to warm. During the middle Holocene (10.5–5.0 kyr B. P.), the values of χ, χfd and 2–5 µm grain-size fraction (GT2/5) are higher and Md and 30–63 µm grain-size fraction (GT30/63) are the lowest, which reflect a warm and humid regional climate. At ~ 8.0 kyr B. P., there was a transient dry-cold climatic spike corresponding to a Heinrich Event, the cold event was likely due to the collapse of the Laurentide ice sheet. During the late Holocene (5.0–0 kyr B. P.), χ and χfd values are the lowest, while Md and GT30/63 are high, as proxies of a weakened EASM, when the dry-cold climate prevailed in the region. Decreased irradiance since 5.0 kyr B.P. may have caused climatic cooling and drying. Spatially, the increased main peak values and skewness from BCY, XF to LY sections show that the grain size became fine, the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) reduced, and climate was warmer and wetter from northwest to southeast. In addition, Md can be used as alternative proxy for EAWM, while χfd is positive with the intensity of EASM under semiarid climate conditions in CLP.
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Key words:
- Holocene /
- magnetic susceptibility /
- grain size /
- paleoclimate /
- Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP)
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Figure 1. The location of Chinese Loess Plateau with the wind directions of Indian monsoon and East Asian monsoons (Xue et al., 2016) (a), and the sites of Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) sections (b)
Figure 2. Vertical distribution curves of grain size and magnetic susceptibility of Holocene paleosols in Baicaoyuan (a), Xifeng (b) and Linyou (c) sections. Md, median grain size; GT30/63, 30–63 µm grain-size fraction; GT2/5, 2–5 µm grain-size fraction; χ, magnetic susceptibility; χfd, frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility
Figure 3. Grain-size frequency distribution curves of paleosol samples from Baicaoyuan (a), Xifeng(b) and Linyou(c) sections on Chinese Loess Plateau
Figure 4. A comparison diagram among magnetic susceptibility (χ) of Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) paleosols on Chinese Loess Plateau and δ18O of stalagmites from Sanbao Cave (SB) (Wang et al., 2008)
Figure 5. The correlation between χ of Baicaoyuan (BCY), Xifeng (XF) and Linyou (LY) sections on Chinese Loess Plateau and the abundance of Punctumorphana in Xifeng section (Chen and Wu, 2008) and July Solar Insolation at 65°N (Berger and Loutre, 1991)
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